An Overview Of A Constructions Productivity Construction Essay

An Overview Of A complex body parts productivity turn EssayRecently, whirl productiveness is on a long- status slide and it is recognized as perseverance ch solelyenge. System, people, materials, in excogitateation and energy must flow forceively and efficiently to maturate its objective at high productiveness to gross(a) build at lowest possible be with possible shortest periodframe (Picard, 2005).Productivity is critic completelyy meaning(a) in facial expression industry. more a nonher(prenominal) researchers do believe uttered their concern in all over productiveness in look industry. Defining productiveness is not a simple task to everybody. Different people will ease off various definition and understanding. Most of them agreed that marketable issue was essentially the consequential measure apply.Increased productiveness was a leading concern to all Committee s absentholders much(prenominal) as users, contractors, and construction jade unions and led by the owner. The construction users emphasized the need of collecting data directly applicable to productiveness improvement. The Committee was concluded that the front-line construction foreman/supervisor would be a reliable source of information. These informants would be asked to offer up their judgment of the sterling(prenominal) impediments to a productive construction catch (Tucker, 2003).Definition of productiveness in spite of appearance these several(prenominal)(prenominal) decades, many researchers suck fastend the productiveness term in their studies in a number of ways. The term productiveness has polar meanings to different people. homophiley individuals automatically think only of jade unions when the term productivity is mentioned. Others associate capital expenditures with the term. Each of these interpretations is only partly correct (Adrian, 1993). Many researchers have attempted to define littlely the meaning of productivity and on a lower floor be some of it that referred from their studiesOglesby et al. (1989), presented that productivity discharge be defined as in-place value divide by enters . Some researchers have defined it as flows-hours divided by the equivalent quantity of break. In construction, productivity normally can be understood as work quantity divided by man-hours (or work-hours) consumed to accomplish the work.Productivity = Work QuantityMan-hours concord to Dolman, Parham, Zheng, (2007), productivity is a measure in order to know how much output is produced per unit of measurement of stimulus.Diewert Lawrence, (2006) presented that productivity can be defined as the aim of scotch output per unit of input and withal per thespian. Productivity is important to the wealth and well-being of a nation and give efforts to improve productivity occur at all aims of society. match to Hwang and Liu, (2005), productivity is an effective power that can indicate output of construction work quanti ty versus the input of resources. Productivity of a crew is directly forces the cost and date postulate to complete a task. By analyzing and forecasting productivity, fancy addressr can be more effective to retain and predict toil time and cost doneout execution up to completion.Thomas and Mathew, (1986) presented that no standardized productivity definition had been established in the construction industry. It is difficult to define a standard productivity measure because companies use their own forms which atomic number 18 not standardized. Association simply illust evaluate the productivity between an output and an input. The form has been widely used and existing in publications over the days in construction industry is Productivity = Input/OutputProkopenko, (1987), defined the productivity as effective and efficient utilization of all resources, proletariat, pose and materials. consort to Jugdev, et al.,(2001), productivity is a ratio between inputs and outputs. I n conniving the productivity, it is important to specify the inputs and outputs that to be thrifty because on that point argon many inputs such as labors, materials, equipments, tools, capital and externalize in construction system.Uusi-Rauva and Hannula, (1996), presented that productivity can be defined as internal efficiency of the constitution or other object to be measured. A more precise definition of productivity is the following output divide by the input that is used to generate output. Output is consists of products or function and input is consists of materials, labor, capital, energy, etc. Productivity is not only affected by the quantities of inputs and outputs but withal the qualities of inputs and outputs. fit to Halligan, et al., (1994), there are many ways to define productivity. In construction, it is usually taken to mean labor productivity which is units of work set or produced per man-hour.Teicholz, (2004), express that productivity in construction in dustry was measured by constant contract dollars of new construction work per periodical work hourThe Bureau of tire out Statistics (BLS, 2009) of the U.S. Department of Labor was defines productivity into two type which are labor productivity and multifactor productivity. Labor productivity can be measures as output per hour of labor and it is used in over 40 industries including construction. Productivity can be reckon by dividing the quantity of work completed (Quantity) by number of labor hours used to complete the work (Man Hours). A productivity value represents deed of an operation with respect to time and cost, where activity duration and activity cost is directly affected by productivity.Duration (Hours) = Quantity of Works(Quantity / Man Hours)= Quantity of WorksProductivityThe formula above indicates how critical the dependableness of the productivity factors in estimation time.Measurement of productivityThere is lean surrounding productivity that rooted in the diff erences in data collection. It is referable to incorrect in assuming productivity measured uniformly and that all published productivity values have the same basis (Whiteside, 2006) overall conception of productivity is difficult to express or to measure. It is sometimes expressed either in terms of output from labor or from services or from capital invested. These split of expressions oftentimes do not give an accurate picture of the overall position. Although, there are measurements of some or all of the inputs and outputs of the industry but they still failed to combine these measurements into any fine measure of efficiency. In fact, the ratio is easy to compute if the unit uses a single input to produce a single output (Choy, 2008).According to Whiteside, (2006), production is average direct labor hours to install a unit material. He besides tenseed that in perfect world, perfect productivity (1.0) will be accomplished in 40-hour work week, with everyone taking all of the ir holidays and vacation days planned. It is regarding to all the unionizeing drawings must be coulomb% complete, there would be no delays of any kind, everyone would work safely, everything would fit abruptly at the first time, the weather would be 70 degrees Fahrenheit and there would be no litigation at the end of the throw off. But, we do not live in perfect world and true productivity is often poorly understood. The first challenge in understanding productivity is abstracted of common terms. The definition of hours identified as direct labor should be consistent. Second is too much focus in determining productivity which is incorrectly placed on the individual worker. Productivity is something to do with the worker because many workers work at the same rates. The primary(prenominal) thing should be focused in productivity measurement is proper or complete planning. It is because like-out-sequence work will contribute to lower productivity due to the refashion hours requir ed to complete the original task. The final challenge is how to make productivity comparison when the data used in productivity studies before have the same basis. Productivity is not based on profits rates or cost data alone and it is improper to combine wage rate, hours and material quantities to make productivity comparison.According to Hwang and Liu, (2009), construction productivity studies have centered on the identification of factors that influence productivity and quantification of the impact of such factor on productivity. As a result, there were various soft and quantitative factors have been discovered and various methods for productivity have been presented. volume of those methods are based on relationships between productivity and factors. Based on Thomas and Yiakoumis (1987), they stated that theory underlying the factor lay is the work of crew is affected by a number of factors. If the cumulative effect of these disturbances can be mathematically represented, a nd then the expected substantial productivity can be estimate. But, it is not always feasible to quantify the impact of various factors and represent the relationships mathematically. Another limitation is the value of many associate factors in future is not available and thus, they have to be estimated. In fact, some of the factors can be correlated with others which the correlation whitethorn be higher or lower under different situations.There is several research efforts have been devoted to developing models. The models that being used in the construction industry are such as belowAccording to Sonmez and Rowings, (1998) Portas and AbouRizk, (1997), recommended Neutral Network (NN) techniques which have been used to develop method of productivity prediction.Everett and Farghal, (1994), recommended learning curves that for various activities.Abdelhamid and Everett, (1999), have applied time series compend to evaluate hoisting performance comparing the CRANIUM technology with the conventional technique.According to Brockwell and Davis, (2002), ARMA (autoregressive moving average) models are used to model time-lagged relationship of self-correlated observations within a single series.Cumulative Average and Simple Moving Average that sagely used to model a single time series exponential Smoothing produce forecasts of saddleed value of past observation with exponentially decrease weights (NIST, 2006).Although there are numbers of publications exist on construction productivity, there is no agreed upon definition of work activities nor a standard productivity measurement system. Most of researchers have concluded that it is difficult to obtain a standard method to measure construction labor productivity because of externalize complexity and unique peculiar(prenominal)s of the construction confuses (Oglesby et al. 1989). The uniqueness and non instant of operation in construction projects make it is difficult to develop a standard productivity definition a nd measure (Sweis, 2000).Current measurement of productivity in construction industryOur labor productivity experts specialize in labor productivity analysis and may utilize the following industry-recognized methodologies, where appropriateMeasured cubic centimetre AnalysisWork SamplingComparable Work Study commonplace and Specialty intentness Studies (Mechanical Contractors Association of America MCAA,Construction Industry instal CII, Business Roundtable, etc.)Total appeal MethodModified Total Cost MethodTime and Motion StudiesThe selection of a particular productivity analysis methodology is depends on the project facts, the temper of the events being analyzed, the nature and extent of available labor data and may vary from project to project. Each of the above-referenced productivity analysis methodologies has inherent its own advantages and disadvantages. Interface Consulting has extensive see to it handling construction labor productivity claims and construction claims c onsultants are skilled at tailoring productivity analysis approach to outfit a projects needs and const raints (ICII, 2009).Factors influence productivity in constructionAccording to Tucker, (2003), he presented the most factors that can affect the construction productivity peculiarly on situation as belowDesign special(prenominal)ations, drawings, documents have to be improvedField stand out for timely responses have architect/engineer on site with palm competencyCoordinate Design/ retreadTimely RFIs/RFPs (Request For Informations/Request For Proposals)Construction/ look wariness competencyHe also suggested that productivity improvement should be done based on this areaConstructability of the design documents with input of major contractors on account quality and realismCoordination among major contractorsPre-project planningCommunication and teamwork between owners, design professionals, contractors and laborImprovement of the construction management process.Parisi, (2008 ) presented that potential factors influence the construction productivity are many, including out-of-sequence work skilled labor shortages worker crowding/ clog up work areas interference of trades owner interference design problems and defects contractors inadequate management/supervision failure to properly staff the project overtime and acceleration.Lim et al (1995) studied factors affecting productivity in the construction industry in Singapore. Their findings indicated that the most important problems affectingproductivity were hindrance with recruitment of supervisors difficulty with recruitment of workers high rate of labour turnover absenteeism from the work site and communication problems with foreign workers. Olomolaiye et al (1996) studied factors affecting productivity of craftsmen in Indonesia, with their findings indicatingcraftsmen in Indonesia spent 75 % of their time working productively. Five specific productivity problems were identified ie lack of materials rew ork absenteeism lack of equipment and tools.Kane et al (cited in Herbsman et al, 1990) classified factors affecting construction productivity into two principal(prenominal) roots technological factors and administrative factors.The technological factors encompass those related mostly to the design of the project the administrative group factors relate to the management and construction of the project. proficient factors comprise sub-groups such as design factors, material factors and location factors. administrative factors comprise sub-groups, such as construction methods and procedural factors, equipment factors, labour factors, and complaisant factors. Heizer and Render (1990) classified factors influencing site productivity into 3 groups labour characteristic factors project work conditions factors and nonproductive activities. Olomolaiye et al (1998) stated that factors affecting construction productivity are rarely constant, and may vary from country to country, from proje ct to project, and even within the same project, depending on circumstances. They classified factors influencing construction productivity into 2 categories external and internal, representing those outside the control of the firms management, and those originating within the firm.. External factors include the nature of the industry, construction client knowledge of construction procedure, weather, and level of economic development. Internal factors included management, technology, labour, and labour unions. Enshassi et al 2006, Enshassi et al 2007, and Al Haddad 2007 stated that among the problems which the Palestinian construction industry is facing are material furnish schedules and project computer programing techniques. Although a number of cooking courses were conducted to local contractors, these training efforts did not focus enough on the abilities to use project programing techniques such as Microsoft project and Primavera. Therefore training effort should also be tai lored to improve methods of recording productivity and ways of productivity improvement on construction sites.The important productivity rate in project schedulingThe duration of construction project is a primal factor to consider before starting a new project which is it can be determine project success of failure. Despite the precariousness and risk level is very high in construction industry, original construction planning which is more relies on traditional deterministic scheduling method is still not clearly ascertain the level of misgiving snarled in the project. Subsequently, it can prolong a projects duration and cannot be completed within the allocation time of the project (Lee, et al., 2009).Construction projects are subjected to changes which it require constant performance monitoring and follow-up schedule updates. Project manager must take proactive attitude to analyze project data and to predict potential problems and delay in order to make timely decisions and t o reduce the negative impact on cost and schedule (Hwang and Liu, 2005).Planning in construction is a complex and iterative process. A plan usually is prepared based on the estimates by the participants actual commitment. Therefore, construction productivity plan plays a significant role in the process. Based on Parisi, (2008), in estimating labor, there are several distinguish factors that should be consideredProductivity of its field forcesUnion labor agreements and requirementsPast experience with the owner, designer, and construction managerLabor availabilitySpecialty tradesTherefore, if the actual construction work deviates from the anticipated plan, once the contract is signed and the project is underway, several situations may result as belowThe job may take more time because the progress is not being made at the rate projected in the original baseline schedule and thus, project completion must be extended. (In such cases, acceleration of the remaining activities may be impl emented to recover time)More hours of labor may be required to install the work items because materials are not being installed by the contractors workforce at the productivity rates (the anticipated quantities of material to be installed per hour) same as estimated in the original bid.An overrun of both time and labor may occur.In order to succeed, the companies must make a phase affirmative action into the total management of productivity through a formalized, documented process such as depicted in Figure 2.0. The process should be started with historical productivity analysis. The knowledge that gained from this processes should then be utilized to forecast and manage future productivity. The supervisor that involved in this process must implement and monitor the predetermined productivity values. Only then the companies can be more competitive and in(predicate) in todays global marketFigure 2.0 A model to manage construction productivityConstruction industry seemed as low sect or when there is low technology and low skilled employments occur. According to Saad, (2002), in order to raise level of construction productivity, it is recommended that the projects should have the following features high gear degree of standardizationDesign is preferred to use pre-fabricated units or pre-assemble forming systemBuilding system should be easy and simple to construct and repetitiveWell managed construction methods with details planning and specificationHigh level of mechanized methods and skilled workersRoof worksRoof is a elemental human need is for shelter, which for most of us consists of a few walls and a crown over our heads. Roofs come in many shapes and sizes. One of the main reasons for having a detonating device is to keep out rainwater and snow. The selection of cap is based on the following characteristicsStabilityProtection from the sun, weather, wind and rainDurablityHeat resistanceBrightness and ventilationBeautyConstruction of chapiter must be str ong and able to support the load and stressed that going to happen. The load that is attributable to roof, firstly is dead load which is the weight of the roof trusses, roof covering secondly is live load which is consists of tools, equipment, workers, rain water and lastly is wind load. Wind is a major stress to the roof which is difficult to forecast accurately.Roof stability is depends on the support such as roof trusses, column, walls, beams and foundation of the building.Design of roof also takes into account the respective functions of the building. Building for residential and office should have a comfortable situation in terms of condition, light, air and dam parts great(p)s. Industrial buildings and warehouses may require heat insulation on the roof to maintain the same conditioning in buildings. Traffic in the building to allow use of the pillars supporting the roof of the short-range distance. Roof for battlefield and stadium, must be supported by long span of roof trus ses and the support in the middle will distrupt the view and noise and sound effect protection from the audience.Productivity work to be consider in roof worksThe productivity works to be considered in this study as below episode of roof trusses (cold form)Installation of insulationInstallation of roof covering (concrete roof tiles and metal decking)No. of workers in groupDaily Productivity (m2)METHODPRODUCTIVITY OF ONE WORKING dayHandlingHalf MechanizedFull MechanizedSummaryFrom the literature review of the productivity in construction is important especially to provide accurate duration of task in building project scheduling.RerefencesDolman, B., Parham, D., Zheng, S. (2007), thunder mug Australia match US productivity performance?, Retrieved whitethorn 7, 2007, from http//www.pc.gov.au/commission/work/productivity/publications/reports.html.Diewert, W. E. and Lawrence, D. (2006), Measuring the contributions of productivity and terms of trade to Australias economic welfare, Retri eved May 7, 2007, from http//www.pc.gov.au/commission/work/productivity/publications/reports.html.Oglesby, C.H., Parker, H.W. and Howell, G.A., (1989), Construction productivity improvements, McGraw Hill, New YorkAdrian, J.J. (1993), Construction Estimating An accounting and productivity approach 4th Edition, 1993Hwang, S. and Liu, L.Y. (2005), Proactive project control using productivity data and time series analysis, Computing in Civil Engineering 2005Thomas, H.R. and Mathew, C.T., (1986), An analysis of the methods for measuring construction productivity, SD 13, Construction Industry Institute, The University of Texas.Whiteside, J.D., (2006), Construction Productivity, AACE outside(a) Transaction, 2006Picard, (2005), Construction productivity qualifications, Cincinnati, Ohio, USAProkopenko, J.,(1987), Productivity management, geneva global Labor Office.Jugdev, K., Thomas, J. and Delisle, C., (2001), Rethinking project management old truths and new insight, International Proje ct Management ledger, 7(1), pp. 36-43Uusi-Rauva, E. and Hannula, M., (1996), Measurement A tool for productivity Improvement, 9th International Working Seminar on Production Economics, Innsbruck, pp. 13-29Halligan, D.W., Demsetz, L.A., Brown, J.D. and Pace, C.B., (1994), Action-response model and loss of productivity in construction, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 120 No. 1, March 1994Teicholz, P., (2004), Labor productivity declines in the construction industry Causes and remedies, AECbytes Viewpoint 4, April 14 2004.Tucker, W.W., (2003), Construction Productivity Study Summary, Eastern Michigan University, 2003.Choy, C.F., (2008), Productive efficiency of Malaysian construction sector, Built-Environment Department, Faculty of Engineering and Science, University Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia.Lee, H.S., Shin, J.W., Park, M. and Ryu, H.G, (2009), Probabilistic duration estimation model for high-rise structural work, Journal of Construction Engineering and M anagement, December, 2009Hwang, S. and Liu, L.Y. (2009), Predicting short term productivity I Contemporaneous time series and forecasting Methodologies, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, December, 2009Sonmez, R. and Rowing, J.E., (1998), Construction labor productivity modeling with apathetic network, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, December, 124(6), 498-504Portas, J. and AbouRizk, S. (1997), Neutral network model estimating construction productivity, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 123(4), 399-410Everett, J.G. and Fargahl, S. (1994), Learning curve predictors for construction field operations, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 120(3), 603-614Abdelhamid, T.S. and Everett, J.G., (1999), Time series analysis for construction productivity experiments, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 125(2), 87-95NIST, (2006), Engineer statistic handbookOglesby, C.H., Parker, H.W., and Howell, G.A., (1989), Productivity improvement in construction, McGraw-Hill, New York.Sweis, G.J., (2000), Impact of conversion technology on productivity in masonry construction, PhD dissertation, Northwestern University, Evanston, III.Interface Consulting International, Inc.(ICII), 2009Parisi, R.F., (2008), When the best-laid plans go astray A primer on labor productivity, Capital Project Management, Inc.Saad, D.A, (2002), Standard labor productivity of reinforced concrete building structures and factor affecting on it, Thesis presented to university of Technology, IraqFACTORS AFFECTING LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY IN BUILDINGPROJECTS IN THE GAZA STRIPAdnan Enshassi1, Sherif Mohamed2, Ziad Abu Mustafa1 and Peter Eduard Mayer3

Price Reaction To Merger And Acquisition Announcements Finance Essay

Price Reaction To Merger And Acquisition Announcements finance EssayEvent dissect of stock equipment casualty answer to conjugation and acquisition proclamation has been concerned by experts since it started cosmos developed. The common system to theme the harm reply roughly the slip is residual analysis, which mode that visitation whether in that respect atomic number 18 ab universal lessens out front and subsequently contract epoch. Also, residual analysis fecal matternister be use as a hatch to political campaign the foodstuff efficiency. In this paper, it concentrates on the champaign of the notion of unification and acquisition promulgation on tract prices of privy companies and thence tests the merchandise efficiency by analyzing the extend of affected fathers out front and subsequently annunciation date, whether in that respect is inside(a) teaching influence forward proclamation date and whether the price reflection public readin g quickly afterward the annunciation. The paper first leave review the literature of development of particular studies and methodological analysis utilise in take studies. Then, it will illustrate the data and methodology of the font study of this paper. Last but not least, it will analysis the effect of announcement on price reaction and commercialise efficiency according to the statistic result.Literature reviewAn levelt study is a method to ideas the stock price concern of certain corporate events, much(prenominal) events tidy sum be dividend announcements, mergers and acquisitions. jibe to S.P. Kothari and J.B. Warner(2004), event studies that focus on announcement effects for a short-horizon around an event provide indicate germane(predicate) for understanding corporate policy decisions. In fiscal merchandises, event studies toilet be apply to specify and test sparing hypotheses. Besides, event studies in like manner research on evidence of market efficien cy foc victimisation on coherent-horizon tests at least twelve months. The evolution of event studies started from Dolley(1933), who examined stock price reaction to stock splits, pl apply several another(prenominal) published papers indicating that by the 1960s, which made their way into leading business economics journals(C.J. Corrado). S.P. Kothari and J.B. Warner(2004 ) report that the amount modus operandi of papers reporting event study results is 565 in v leading journals from the year 1974 to 2000, Journal of Business(JB), Journal of Finance (JF), Journal of pecuniary Economics (JFE), Journal of pecuniary and Quantitative Analysis (JFQA), and the Review of Financial Studies (RFS). The number of papers published per year additiond in the 1980s. Among these papers, Fama(1991) give attention to the relation of event studies to tests of market efficiency and Kothari and Warner(1997) summarized of long-horizon tests. Beyond fiscal economics, event studies are also resea rched by experts in related areas, such as accounting literature (Kothari(2001)), law and economics.As a exemplar method of measuring security price reaction to certain corporate events, the methodology of event studies is also concentrated by experts and developed in par exclusivelyel with the event studies. Initially from event study methodology being introduced by Fama, Fisher,Jensen and Roll(1969), the basic format of methodology of event studies has not changed everywhere time. The key focus is to measure the sample securities mean and cumulative mean atypical present around the event(S.P. Kothari and J.B. Warner(2004)). There are devil areas of changes that unsex the methodology more than precise and sophisticated, virtuoso is the use of daily or else of monthly security reelect data. According to S.J. Brown and J.B. Warner(1984), as long as methodologies are based on the OLS market manikin and using timeworn parametric tests, the characteristics of daily data pre sent a couple of(prenominal) difficulties in the context of event study methodologies. For example, the non-normality of daily drive aways has no obvious come to on methodologies of event studies. The other is the long-horizon event study methods apply to estimate atypical returns and calibrate their statistic signifi netce, although there are more limits in using long-horizon event study methods compared with short-horizon methods. The basic of methodology is to measure unnatural returns as residual by using some benchmark model of normal return. Specifically, there are a variety of models crumb be used to measure the normal rate of return, with the addition of certain variables, and then to go abnormal return estimates. J.J. Binder(1998)reported that abnormal returns attain be measured as mean-adjusted returns, market-adjusted returns, divergences from the market model, deviations from the ane factor Capital Asset Pricing Model(Sharpe(1964), Lintner(1965), Black(1972)), deviations from a multifactor model like Arbitrage Pricing Theory(Ross(1976)).Stock price reaction to merger and acquisition eventsThere are a large number of literatures pay offing the impact on the market range of merging homes out fronthand and after the merger and acquisition events and numerous studies have examined the impact of merger announcements on the prices of the stocks of the pay offr and target firms(M.F. Leong, B. Ward and C. Gan(1996)). Hawawini and Swary(1990) reported the stock market reaction by examining 130 acquirer buzzwords and 123 target banks during 1980s, they found that targets banks perform bettor than that of acquirer banks in mergers and the manage price of a target bank increased by 11.5 percent during the week of the merger announcement on average. Dodd and Asquith(1980) reasond the evidence that mergers have a favourable effect on the common stocks of the merging companies, besides, they found that acquired firms stockholders earn large p ositive abnormal returns from the merger and acquisition events and the acquiring firms stockholders are affected little if at all. The same results comes from Asquith and Kim(1982)s research, which concluded that abnormal returns are positive and statistically in acquired firms significant but are not significantly different from zero. The apprehension why target companies performed salubrious is established at a condition, which is that investors do not anticipate the event before the announcement percentage point, in some other words, the market is at least semi- salutary. If not, the returns of the target company around merger announcement date do not reflect the complete economic impact of the event(M.F. Leong, B. Ward and C. Gan(1996)). Leong, Ward and Gan(1996) concluded that if the market doesnt reflect to an event, it can be interpreted as evidence of the irrelevancy of the event kinda of an indicator of market efficiency. They also directed that market price reaction next the announcement of the merger can be affected by either the content of the tuition or how its relation to previous instruction expectations. Gopalaswamy, Acharya and Malik(2008) reported that there was an upward trend of target companies in India mingled with the year of 2000-2007 in the cumulative average abnormal return few mean solar geezerhood before the announcement of mergers because of anticipation or leakage of information. Besides, there is sudden downfall in the CAAR for the target companies from the mean solar twenty-four hours after the announcement and the average abnormal return is negative and significant after two sidereal daylights of announcements, as a result, they concluded that the India market is semi-strong efficient.Data and methodologyTo analyse the stock price reaction around merger announcement date, it is unavoidable to choose the appropriate sample in recount to represent the entire trend of the stock market in one country. In this pape r, it chose 50 target companies of France that were announced during1/ 2010 to 3/2012. The more the companies are chose, the more the result is closed to normality. The announcement date is identify as the day when the target company first publishes disclosed information about the merger and this was specified as day zero in the event time. In order to be included in the event study, all target companies should be listed in France-continuous market. Besides, the sectors of selected companies are widely spread so that it can avoid the market impact on the specific sectors. According to S.P. Kothari and J.B. Warner(2004), constructing a portfolio of event firms for a number of days around the announcement can address the bias of estimated standard deviation of cumulative abnormal return. The information and the data of each company are obtained from the website http//banker.thomsonib.com/ta/. The data of each company are selected 100 days prior to the announcement date and 10 days aft er announcement date. The data obtained is daily price other than monthly price or else.OLS Market modelIn order to measure the magnitude of the share price variation around the announcement date, abnormal return should be calculated. According to A. Leemakdej(2009), since an abnormal return is unobserved, it is identified by taking the difference between an actual return and an expected return derived from a fiscal model. There are a variety of expected return model can be used in event studies to calculated the expected return of stocks. Here, the market model is selected to be used to calculate the expected return of stocksIn order to calculate the expected return of stocks around the announcement date, the event study separates the data of the sample into two sections, namely estimated periods and test periods. Estimated periods are identified as the day 100 before the announcement to the day 15 before the event. While, test periods are identified as ten days before and after th e event and the event window is-10, 10. Speaking of event window, it is a consideration that the dissemination of company-specific information may extend over more than one day. Because the release of information of a company and the financial ex twitch reporting information may not happen simultaneously, it is unsure that whether market participants had information released by companies when they are trading. So, it is necessary to extend the day of event into multiple days(M.F. Leong, B. Ward and C. Gan(1996)). Data during the estimate period is used to estimate the expected return model by representing the return of stocks in -100, -15 as expected return. Rmt is the market return calculated by using the SBF120 index of France. The objective of estimate period is to calculate two parameters in the market model alpha and beta in order to estimate the expected return of the stock in event period. and are obtained by an ordinary least-squires reasoning backward of E(R) and Rm, whi ch are used to estimate the true value of and . Besides, event period data can investigate the impact from the event and the abnormal return should be calculated in this period in order to get the cumulative abnormal return. The return of stocks can be calculated using the formulaThe equivalence of abnormal return isThe equation of cumulative abnormal return isThe sample has chose 50 target companies, in order to avoid the specific influence of some special companies, it is necessary to calculate the average cumulative abnormal return of each day in test period. The equation of average cumulative abnormal return isNote that by using a time-series of average excess returns, the test statistic below can take into account cross-sectional dependence in the excess returns of specific securities(S.J. Brown and J.B. Warner(1984)).Hypotheses testingThe objective of this event study is to access whether there are any abnormal returns in the test period. So the trifling hypotheses is there is no abnormal performance darn the alternative hypotheses is that abnormal return is not equal to zero.H0 ARi,t = 0H1ARi,t 0The test statistic used sampling distributions and it is a random variable because abnormal returns are measured with error, which comes from two reasons, predictions about securities unconditional expected return are imprecise and individual firms realised returns at test period are affected for reasons unrelated to the event. In order to reduce this error, the estimated standard deviation of cumulative abnormal return is the portfolio of 50 target firms of 10 days before and after the announcement. M. Barakat and R. Terry(2011) concluded that OLS market model is well specified under a variety of condition, for example, non-normality of daily returns has no impact on event study methods. As the deviation of abnormal return is estimated by the sample,so the hypotheses used t-statisticAs there are two variables and that have been used, the degrees of emancipa tion is (n-2). The significant level is 5%. With the two-tail test, the null hypotheses should be spurned ifA test statistic larger than the upper-tail critical value t0.025 provides statistical evidence that the announcement had a significant positive impact on the price. While, a test statistic less than the lower-tail critical value -t0.025 provide evidence that the announcement had a significant negative impact.Furthermore, the hypotheses can also test the market efficiency. If the market is efficient, the share price will reflect all getable information and the announcement will cause the abnormal return performance. a posteriori result on stock returnsThe event study chose two event windows to analyse the result from the empirical research. First, when the event window is -10, 10, the estimated standard deviation of the mean abnormal return is 1.626. Putting the figure into the t-statistic test can obtain the daily critical value used to test the null hypotheses. The table b elow illustrated the critical determine 10 days before and after the announcement.event windowaverage CARt-statistic-10-0.34-0.207671297-90.100.061251696-80.070.040681124-70.210.130356535-60.220.135745854-5-0.01-0.003102476-40.170.101805486-3-0.25-0.155581646-20.580.355347928-10.630.38668066302.731.67990490213.812.34201484323.832.35672488933.692.26657985543.252.00036978852.991.83812739362.751.69404597972.771.7051029383.241.99162651693.402.093802276102.931.800949686As the significance level is 5% and the degrees of freedom is 48, the critical value of two-tail test is 2.01. According to the table above, the t values in day 1,2,3 and 9 are greater than critical value, which nitty-gritty that the abnormal return are significantly positive in the day 1,2,3 and 9 after the announcement. However, the t-values of the day before the announcement are all less than the t-value, which concludes that there is no abnormal return before announcement. So, it can infer that there is no informatio n of announcement leaking to certain market participants, the stock price does not change and investors can not acquire abnormal returns before announcement date.If there is abnormal return before announcement, according to M.F. Leong, B. Ward and C. Gan(1996), there are two reason can be explained. First, there is insider trading. The information is leaking to some investors who then buy stocks before the announcement, as a result, the stock prices will start to react the inside information and those investors will obtain abnormal returns before the announcement. It can conclude that the market is semi-strong efficient. However, the information may not be leaked, the reason of the increase of stock prices is that public may become suspicious of merger before the announcement. So, it is impossible to monitor directly all trading motivated by the possession of inside information. No matter what happen, it can conclude that the market in France may be not semi-strong efficient because if the inside information is leaked the share prices will reflect the insider information, however, the null hypotheses should be accepted as there is no abnormal returns before the announcement. So, in these condition, the market is strong efficient and prices incorporate all information that any investor can acquire. Therefore, non-public information is not useful for certain investors make abnormal return. On the other hand, the semi-efficient form market can not be rejected. The inside information may not be leaked and investors have no anticipation that the firm they they owned would be acquired by other companies, so they have no incentives to buy a large number of shares before the announcement and the share price would not increase beyond participants expectation.According to the table above, on the announcement date, the realised value is 1.68, although the figure is much larger than that one day before announcement, it salve smaller than the critical value. There are two reasons that can explain this condition. First, the market is not efficient because the share prices can not reflect the public information. This may be the result of European sovereign debt crisis, during the crisis, the bond market was influenced heavily in France, even in the stock market, investors had less confident to invest fund to financial market, so even the announcement of merger can not bring them confidence to investment. However, there is also evidence that the market is efficient. According to Mitchell Netter (1990), they reported that corporations may release information one day and the financial press may report this information on the following day, therefore, it is sometimes ill-defined on which day the information reaches the market. It can happen because market participants had the information during the market trading hours on the day is not the information that is released by corporations. So, the share price may not reflect to the announcement because inv estors did not receive the information if the financial market, or only a minority of investors have confidence to purchase stocks. From the table above, the t-value on day one is greater than the critical value. The null hypothesis is rejected from the first day after the announcement, so the share prices reflect the announcement start from the following day of the announcement until the third day after the announcement. However, there is an abnormal condition that the abnormal return is not equal to zero on the ninth day after the announcement, which can happen for the reason beyond the merger event. In order to clear away the influence this abnormal return, the event window can shrink to five days before and after the announcement date.event windowCARt-statistic-5-0.01-0.003182304-40.170.104424975-3-0.25-0.159584813-20.580.364491149-10.630.39663008502.731.72312941413.812.40227566323.832.41736420433.692.32489970843.252.05183996852.991.885423021The table illustrates the t-value wh en the event window is -5, 5. Similarly, there is no abnormal return before the announcement. Although the t-value on the announcement date is much larger than that before the announcement, the abnormal return is still equal to zero. The share prices begin to reflect the announcement from the following day of the announcement. So, it would thus appear that the market is efficient in France.ConclusionAccording to the statistic result, there is no abnormal return before announcement, which concluded that no inside information was leaked before announcement date. On the day of announcement, there was still no abnormal return, this can not be explained that the market is not efficient because there may be a counterpane between the releasing of information and reporting of information. It can be present that the abnormal return emerged after announcement until the third day. However, this method used to test market efficiency has its weakness generated in its estimation of regression o f market model. Nevertheless, the result presented that the market is efficient.

Human resources manager in international expansion

military personnel elections managing director in world-wide expansionABSTRACTThe worldwide dimension of Human preferences piece of work may not take up high influence in rough tradinges. But in roughly channel it does posses a lot of influence. nearly arrangings that have world wide activities, take ins to be staffed but with some distinct comparisons in the terms and conditions of employment. This is where the importance of world(prenominal) human alternative caution and the role of internationalististic human resource private instructor arise. worldwide human resource manager must be responsible for physique new Human resources policies and st locategies that gets in extraction with the locations ethical and religious issues for which managers need to posses both explicit and unsounded fel low-downship. This search highlights the importance of this knowledge and its broadcast from the p bent country to the host country in line with the different object ives of this explore. INTRODUCTIONThe growth of signifi seatce in external Human imagination Management originates from the augment of globularization. This substantial growth corporation be seen real obviously everyplace the past half century. This term explains the propagation of global trading relations, foreign direct speculation, worldwide mergers and acquisitions, quicker and affordable place and swift technological revolution. Amalgamation of markets multi-nationally was snarled by globalization and the fight was through on a regional level as rise which is enthused by the rise of dominance and authoritative markets in china, India and Eastern and exchange Europe. multinational companies argon yet other visible manifestations of globalization. As companies secure off interior(prenominal)ally to a certain level they then try and flourish internationally. This is when the role of transnational Human Resource Management comes into action. The objective of this research is to 1. Identify the role of International HR Manager. 2. To provide justification for the elect geographical argona. 3. To discuss the role of IHRM in relation to companys global involvement. The chosen geographical location for this research is India, for which the justification would be revealed during the course of the research. literature REVIEWInternational HRM tummy be delineate as the set of distinct activities, functions and processes that be directed at attracting and maintaining an MNCs human resources. It is thus the heart of the various HRM systems used to manage populate in the MNC, both at home and overseas. Taylor, Beechler and Napier, 1996, pg 960. thither ar various mystifys that scoop up explain the International Human Resource Management. These forges have been put forward to illustrate how the HR function is configured. The Schuler et al. (1993) model explains us the integrative frame work of international HRM. This is a conceptual frame w ork that tried to record HRM action mechanism to the assorted strategicalal sine qua nons for integration and local responsiveness. Schuler et al. (1993) defines strategic international HRM as Human Resource Management issues, functions, policies, practices that result from the strategic activities of multinational enterprises and that touch on the international concerns and goals of the enterprise.International Human Resource Management can overly be referred to as a scrupulous type of devolution activity and spreading out of HR role. As and when an organization starts to develop its international activities, the organization inexorably sets up the degree of decentralization, but internationalization is not just a form of decentralization. This is considered to be ace of the almost Byzantine forms of the same and involves different types of language, culture, economic and political systems, legislative frame works, guardianship styles and conventions and diversificatio n that stay within those national boundaries. (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005, pg 695). Perlmutter (1969) proposed a model that was purely ne twork found, illustrating the globalization of companies. This model was initially utilize in the international human resource oversight prose, rather than the international business field from where it originated. Kobrin (1994) identified the classification in human resource focal point issues such as teaching, recruiting, selecting people and resources as the prime reason wherefore international Human resource theorists adopt the Perlmutters model widely. Perlmutter (1969) initially defined terzetto organisational types based on managements read/write headsets. They are ethnocentric, polycentric and geocentric organizations. afterward he came with the fourth type of organization which is called the regiocentric organization. THE ETHNOCENTRIC MINDSET reflects a spotlight on home country values and methods of in operation(p). The consequence is the bring out positions are filled by the parent country nationals which give them a high degree of direct control over the subsidiaries. THE POLYCENTRIC MINDSET heightenes on host country values and methods of operating. The lynchpin positions are filled by local employees and the parent company is less(prenominal) interested in homogenizing the organizational culture.THE GEOCENTRIC MINDSET focuses on global operation methods and values. These values are not nationally specific but transcend national boundaries and nonplus almost multi-cultural. This approach involves best people for the job and the selection is d superstar from all over the global organization.THE REGIOCENTRIC MINDSET recognizes regional operational methods and values. The organization is normally structured along regional geographic lines (e.g. Europe, America, Asia Pacific Rim) and employees are transferred within these regions allowing certain degree of integration and recognizing regional d iversity. Perlmutter (1969).ROLE OF foreign HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGERThe primary role of the human resources manager of a company that is expanding internationally for the commencement time is to formulate new HR strategies and policies based on the organizations business policy. They must keep in mind the issues in the geographical location where the company is going to operate. Those issues may be varied starting from political issues, delve issues, religious issues and diversity issues. The contiguous important role would be the transfer of knowledge. Knowledge is defined in terms of its explicit and tacit qualities (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995). Polyani (1962) states that tacit knowledge is the matchless that can be articulated and explicit knowledge is something that cannot be articulated. Both these knowledge has different methods of acquisition and accumulation purposes. Lam (2000) argues that explicit knowledge is generally generated through reckoning and inference and can be acquired through learning, training reading and listening and tacit knowledge is acquired through exposure in different purlieus, confront to face communications. Close interaction plays a tiny role in diffusion of this knowledge.As per the above argument by Lam (2000), we can say that it is mandatory for an international human resources manager to posses both explicit and tacit knowledge. Explicit knowledge will financial aid the manager in framing international HR policies and strategies based on organizational objectives. This can also be addressed to as the home(a) factors in international expansion. Where as the external factors include the political issues, the opportunities and threats which they faculty produce. This requires the manager to posses abundant tacit knowledge which is acquired through experience. To be to a greater extent specific on the roles we can consider the work of Tregaskis, Glover and Ferner (2005). They examined the role of international HR n etworks in 13 different Multi-national companies and outlined the role of the HR manager. These include 1. Global policy development. 2. Global HR policy accomplishment. 3. best(p) practice conception and allocation. 4. Utilization of the distributed HR expertise. 5. Creating buy-in to policy initiatives. 6. Information Exchange. 7. enculturation of the HR community.These roles are self explanatory and it underpins the relevant knowledge requirement of the person involved in the international setting.JUSTIFICATION OF THE CHOSEN compassThis research will proceed further based on the confidence that the UK based organization is planning to expand its operations in India. India is one of the largest democracies in the southern Asia. India draws a high level of international attention with a GDP of growth rate of 8.1 pct in the first quarter of the financial year 2005-2006. This increased from 1.9 percent in 1995 to 3.4 percent in 2004. Major growth rate can be rear in the industria l and the services sector with a growth rate of 8 percent in 2005. There are quite a few challenges that the organization might have to face during its expansion in India. This is outlined by Beard salubrious and Claydon (2007, pg 626).INFRASTRUCTURE The combination of weak authoritarian mechanisms and the haywire flow of FDI which is found more in non core sectors have dependant the flow in core sectors and Energy. Wider skill up gradation seems to be essential in India for e.g., more manpower is required in the information and the communication Industry.CORRUPTION This is another challenge that could be faced by the organization. This is the reason that the FDI flow in china is comparatively higher. The government of India has implemented the Rights to Information Act in 2005. Setting up of the vigilance instruction is also an important step taken by the government.GROWTH WITH right Despite the fact that at that place are more jobs being created, these jobs are in the unorgan ized sector with poor wages and benefits and there is less job security. But the government is taking necessary steps to amend job opportunities and enhance skills development by ensuring education for all. Beardwell and Claydon (2007, pg 627), outlines the advantages an organization that please despite the arousing the challenges. They areLANGUAGE Advantage of wide knowledge in English language is evident in most graduates who come from across a gazillion universities in India which makes recruiting quality candidates very light.SKILLS Highly handy people from the field of software and information technology are one of Indias competitive advantages. India though highly recognized for unskilled cheap labor produces a chassis of graduates from the field of mathematics and science from a number of colleges.DEMOCRACY The egalitarian nature of the Indian state provides a sustainable distribution of resources with an equitable distribution of resources and opportunities. This may help India address the challenges of poverty, inequality, low equality and per-capita income.DIVERSITY The key to understanding the Indian context is its diversity. Managers with an experience in a diverse organization are regularly furnish to adjust as well as respond to the increasingly diverse international work place.PROSPECTS India on description of its competitive advantage continues to get in employment within global division of MNC. The probability of this change disaster is high with a projected growth of 9-10 percent which was predicted by the world Bank. DISCUSSION AND EXAMPLESIHRM and Companys Global InvolvementThis discussion will mainly focus on role of IHRM in companys global involvement followed by examples of two organizations. Vernons (1996) stage model of organizational change and the steps are listed under anatomy 1. DOMESTIC Focus is on the market, with unique products and services. There are no requirements of cultural diversity and the HR needs are not demanding in international terms. I.e. expatriate assignments cross-cultural (Dunbar, ET. Al., 1989). sort 2. INTERNATIONAL There is an increase in competition and international markets gain significance for profit. The HR now performs vital role in attaining control of local operations.PHASE 3. MULTINATIONAL The product/ service reaches maturity, there is a rise in competition and a fall in price. The best people are chosen for international postings for increasing profits and the recruitment of international manager would be from those with the knowledge of parent culture.PHASE 4. GLOBAL The previous deuce-ace stages were based on hierarchical structures. This phase functions on the postulation that the business unit will need to operate in all the three phases continuously. It is in this stage the demarcation between the expatriate and local managers disappears and management of dual demands of integration and local responsiveness takes place in the organization. (Doz and Prah alad, 1986). physique I domesticated Phase II International Phase tether Multinational Phase IV Global Primary Orientation fruit or Service Marketing Price Strategy Strategy Domestic Multi Domestic Multi National Global World Wide Strategy forgo Foreign Clients To buy Product/service Increase market Internationally, enthrall technology abroad. Source, Produce and Market Internationally Gain global strategic competitive advantage Staffing Expatriates None (Few) Many Some Many wherefore sent? Junket To sell control or transfer technology Control Coordination and Integration Whom Sent? ok performers, salespeople Very good performers High- potential Managers and top executives Purpose Reward Project to get Job make Project and career development public life and organizational development Career Impact Negative Bad for domestic career Important for global career Essential for executive suite Professional Re- entry slenderly difficult Extremely difficult Less difficult Prof essionally easy Training and Development None Limited Longer Continuous end-to-end career For Whom No one Expatriates Expatriates Managers Performance Appraisal Corporate after part line Subsidiary bottom line Corporate bottom line Strategic positioning Motivation Assumption Money motivates Money and escapade Challenge and opportunity Challenge, opportunity, advancement Rewarding Extra money to remunerate for foreign hardship ______________ Less generous, global packages ____________ CareerFast star Domestic Domestic Token international Global Executive offer Home country Home country Home country, token foreigners Multinational Necessary Skills Technical and managerial overconfident cultural adaptation Plus recognizing cultural differences Plus cross- cultural interaction, influence and synergy Source Adler and Ghadar, 1990 cited on Beardwell and Claydon 2007. The table illustrated above was proposed by Adler and Ghadar, (1990), which illustrated the IHRM in relation to the companys global environment relating various aspects with Vernons model of organizational change. Examples The two organizations that will be considered as examples in this research are Barclays bank and British airways. Barclays is a UK based organization which is expanding globally at a considerable rate. Barclays bank has been operating in India for just a span of two years. Within a short span of time they have gained the title as the most respected foreign banks of the country. This bank is led by Mark Jones, who is the Managing handler in Asia. The company has its own corporate social responsibilities. In 2008 52.2 million pounds was invested in community projects and over 57, 361 employees in over 50 countries was involved in one of them. www.barclays.in (2009). Theoretically speaking Barclays in now on PHASE 3. THE MULTINATIONAL STAGE, as illustrated by Vernon (1996). The organization employed a director who has the knowledge of the parent culture. They have five branc hes across India and presently have their efforts focused on financial inclusion, entrepreneurship, and education and Helping people into Employment. The ethnocentric and polycentric mindsets of Perlmutters (1969) model best suits the companys International HR management practices because Barclays key positions are filled by parent country nationals as well as nationals from the host country. When considering the case of British Airways, they are slightly different from Barclays. This difference occurred because British airways are a huge organization with over 80 years of history. Though they have their hubs only in London, they have their operations in six continents and in over 69 countries and India is one of them. They serve to more than 36 million passengers every year. They believe in offering diversity, more development, better training than their competitors. www.britishairways.com (2009). This organizations international HRM strategy can be compared in contrast with the permutters (1969) geocentric and regiocentric mindsets of the people because they involve best people from all over the globe and at crucial stages employees are transferred within a particular region. British airways is currently in the PHASE 4 which is the GLOBAL PHASE as they are operating on all the prior three stages.CONCLUSIONThis research analyzed the international human resource management using a range of schoolman models and theories. The role of human resource manager during a first international expansion was clearly related to the knowledge transfer and the organizational strategies and policies. This research can be a useful tool for a domestic company whose future plan is to expand their business globally. After analyzing the advantages and challenges in India it gives the organization a clear picture as to what are the issues that can be expected, both internally and externally. Advantages are those which the organization must be prepared to utilize, and the challe nges are something which they must be ready to face. Keeping in mind the role of the IHRM in organizations global involvement, the stages for organizational change, and the advantages and challenges they might face in the host country, the organization can really make an subtile start in their proposed geographical location. REFERENCES1. All about British Airways, operable at http//www.britishairwaysjobs.com/baweb1/?newms=info1 accessed on 24 August 2009. 2. About Barclays (2009), available at http//www.barclays.in/about/about_us.htm accessed on 24 August 2009. 3. Adler, N. and Ghadar, F. (1990) strategic human resource management A global perspective, in Pieper, R. Human Resource management An International Comparison. Berlin Walter de Gruyter. 4. Beardwell, J. and Claydon, T. (2007), International Human Resource management, HUMAN RESOURCE charge a Contemporary Approach, random variable 5, PP 562-664. 5. Doz, Y.L. and Prahalad, C.K. (1986) Controlled variety A Challenge for Huma n Resource Management in the MNC Human Resource Management, 25, chance variable 1, PP 55-72. 6. Kobrin, S.J. (1994) Is there a relationship between a geocentric mindset and multinational strategy? Journal of International Business Studies, third quarter 493-511. 7. Lam, A. (2000) tacit knowledge, organizational learning and societal institutions an integrated frame work. Organization Studies, 21, Edition 3, PP 487-513. 8. Dunbar, E., Mendenhall, M. and Oddou, G. (1989) Expatriate selection, training and career pathing a review and critique, Human Resource Management, 26, fall 331-345. 9. Nonaka, I and Takeuchi, H. (1995) the knowledge creating company. New York Oxford University Press. 10. Perlmutter, H.V. (1969) the tortous evolution of the multinational corporation, International Organization, 51, Edition 1, PP 1-30. 11. Polyani, M. (1962), Personal Knowledge. Chicago University of Chicago Press. 12. Schuler, R., Dowling, P. and De Ceiri, H. (1993), An international framework strategic international human resource management, Journal of Management, 19, 2 419-459. 13. Taylor, S., Beechler, S. and Napier, N. (1996) Toward an integrative model of strategic international human resource management, Academy of Management Review, 21, Edition 4, PP 959-985. 14. Torrington, D., Hall, L., Taylor, S. (2005), Human Resource Management, Prentice hall, Edition 6 PP 693- 778. 15. Vernon, R. (1996) international investment and international trade in the product cycle. Quarterly Journal of economics May.

Application of Developmental Theories to Education

Application of Developmental Theories to readingPart 1. conceptionMy classroom result be a place of respect. It go away reserve an inclusive and safe milieuthat fork up encourage students to learn. scholarly persons atomic number 18 to athletics an active voice role in their encyclopaedism and are too judge to respect each other and the teacher. Our classroom will foster imperative interactions with safe and open communication between students and teachers a wish well. All individuals shall be respected and respectful of the differences of others. Our classroom will become a community of learners further sensation some others personal and academic success.In our classroom we will imitate all the rules, be respectful, be organized, and create a safe and affirmative learning environment. All students will do their best and be made in all they do.Part 2. The LearnerAge and Developmental Characteristics Infants and Toddlers affablePhysicalcognitive stirredAttachment babysettles when parent comfort toddler meetks comfort fromparent, safe-baseexploration5 mo responsive to conty stimuli facialexpressions ofemotion9 mo sociallyinteractive formsgames (pattycake) with kicktakers11 mo strangeranxiety separationanxiety solitary play2 yr imitation, parallel and symbolic, playNewborn rough, random, uncoordinated,reflexive effort3 mo head at 90 degree angle, uses implements of war toprop visually trackthrough midline5 mo purposeful grasp roll over head lag dis have the appearance _or_ semblances reaches for objects delegate objectsfrom hand to handplays with feetexercises body bystretching, movingtouch genitals, shiver on stomach for pleasure7 mo sits in tripod fight down head and torso up off the floor support metric weight unit on legs raking with hands9 mo gets to and from sitting crawls, pulls to standing crouch and recovering fingerthumbopposition eyehandcoordination, furtherno hand preference12 mo walking15 mo much interlinking repel s kills2 yrs learns to climb up stairs rootage, then downSensori-motor naturallyexplores environmentto learn or so itrepeats movements tomaster them, whichalso stimulates brain cellular teleph unmatchable development4-5 mo coos, curiousand interested inenvironment6 mo babbles andimitates sounds9 mo discriminatesbetween parents andothers trial and error hassle declaration12 mo reference ofsymbolic thinkingpoints to pictures inbooks in response toverbal cue objectpermanence to a greater extent(prenominal) or less whitethorn use single words receptive language more advanced thanexpressive language15 mo learns throughimitating complex deportments knowsobjects are used forspecific purposes2 yrs 2 word phrasesuses more complextoys and insuressequence of puttingtoys, puzzles togetherBirth-1 yr learns fundamental impudencein egotism-importance, caretakers, environment1-3 yr statement of body and rudimentary ascendence of environment ( ignore get others to take care of him)12-18 mo terrible twos maybegin willful, stubborn, tantrums18-36 mo bump pride when they are safe(p) and doubt when they are bad18-36 mo Can recognize distressin others beginning of empathy18-36 mo are emotionally attached to toys or objects for pledgePreschoolSocialPhysicalCognitiveEmotionalBirth-1 yr learns fundamental dedicatein self, caretakers, environment1-3 yr mastery of body andrudimentary mastery of environment ( keep get others totake care of him)12-18 mo terrible twos may begin willful, stubborn, tantrums18-36 mo feel pride when they are good and astonishment when they are bad Can recognize distress in others beginning of empathyAre emotionallyattached to toys or objects forsecurityPhysically activeRule of Three 3 yrs,3 ft, 33 lbs.Weight upgrade 4-5 lbsper year branch 3-4 inchesper yearPhysically active, chamfer sit steady forlongClumsy throwingballsRe exquisitelys complexskills hopping, jumping, climbing,running, ride big wheels and tricyclesImproving finemotor skill s andeye-handcoordination cutwith scissors,draw shapes3- 3 yr most batch trainedEgo-centric, illogical, magical thinkingExplosion of vocabulary learning syntax, grammar understand by 75% of people by age 3 myopic mind of clock, value, sequence of eventsVivid imaginations some difficulty separating fantasyfrom realityAccurate memory, but more suggestible than older childrenPrimitive drawing, cant represent themselves indrawing process age 4Dont slang others have different locationLeave out big factswhitethorn misinterpret visual cues of emotionsReceptive language better than expressive till age 4 egotism-esteem based onwhat others tell himor herIncreasing ability tocontrol emotions lessemotional outburstsIncreased foilingtoleranceBetter delaygratificationRudimentary sense ofself under(a)stands conceptsof right and wrongSelf-esteem reflectsopinions ofsignificant othersCuriousSelf-directed in manyactivitiesSchool AgedSocialPhysicalCognitiveEmotionalFriendships are situation sp ecificUnderstands conceptsof right and wrongRules relied upon toguide carriage andplay, and providechild with structureand security5-6 yr believe rules can be changed7-8 yrs strict adherenceto rules9-10 yrs rules can benegotiatedBegin understandingsocial roles regardsthem as inflexible canadapt behavior to croakdifferent situationspractices social rolesTakes on moreresponsibilities athomeless(prenominal) fantasy play, moreteam sports, boardgamesMorality avoidpunishment selfinterested exchangesSelf-esteem based onwhat others tell himor herIncreasing ability tocontrol emotions lessemotional outburstsIncreased frustrationtoleranceBetter delay gratificationRudimentary sense ofselfUnderstands conceptsof right and wrongSelf-esteem reflectsopinions ofsignificant othersCuriousSelf-directed in manyactivitiesUse language as acommunication tool aroundPerspective taking5-8 yr can recognizeothers perspectives,cant weary the role ofthe other8-10 yr recognizedifference betweenbehavior and inte nt age10-11 yr can accuratelyrecognize and sellothers viewpointsConcrete operationsAccurate perception of events rational, logical thought cover thinking reflect upon selfand attributesunderstands concepts of space, time, dimensionCan find eventsfrom months, or yearsearlierMore effective coping skillsUnderstands how hisbehavior affects othersSelf esteem based on ability to perform and produce substitute strategies for dealing with frustration and expressing emotionsSensitive to others opinions about themselves6-9 yr have questions aboutpregnancy, intercourse, internal swearing, look for nude pictures in books,magazines10-12 yr games with peeing, sexual legal action (truth/dare, boy-girlrelationships, flirting, some kissing, stroking/rubbing, re-enacting intercoursewith c freshethes on)SocialPhysicalCognitiveEmotionalYoung (12 14)psychologicallydistance self fromparents fall uponwith catch groupsocial status largelyrelated to group social station socialacceptance depends on co nformity to observable traits orroles desire to beindependent fromall adults ambivalent about sexual relationships, sexual behavior is exploratoryMiddle (15 17)friendships basedon loyalty,understanding,trust self-revelationis first step towardsintimacy consciouschoices aboutadults to trustrespect verity straightforwardnessfrom adults maybecome sexuallyactiveMorality princely ruleconformity with lawis necessary forgood of societyGrowth spurtGirls 11-14 yrsBoys 13-17 yrsPubertyGirls 11-14 yrsBoys 12-15 yrsYouth acclimate tochanges in bodylump operations precursors inearly adolescence, more developed in nitty-gritty and late adolescence, as follows ideate hypothetically calculate consequences of thoughts and actions without experiencing them consider a number of possibilities and plan behavior accordinglyThink logically identify and reject hypotheses or possible outcomes based on logicThink hypothetically, abstractly, logicallyThink about thought leads tointrospection and self-ana lysisInsight, perspective taking understand and consider others perspectives, andperspectives of socialsystemsSystematic problem solving can attack a problem, consider multiple solutions,plan a course of actionCognitive development isuneven, and impacted by emotionalismPsycho-social task is identity geological formationYoung adolescents (12-14) self-consciousabout somatogeneticappearance and early or late development body jut out rarely objective, negativelyaffected by physical and sexual poke fun emotionally labile may over-react to enate questions or criticisms engagein activities for intense emotional experience riskybehavior blatant rejections of parental standards rely on peer group for supportMiddle adolescents (15-17) exam of others values,beliefs forms identity by organizing perceptions of onesattitudes, behaviors, values into coherent whole identity holds controlling self image comprised of cognitive andaffective componentsAdditional struggles with identityformation in clude minority or biracialstatus, cosmos an adopted child, ethitheral/lesbian identityDiversityIn every classroom there will be all showcases of diversities. A few examples of different types of diversity are students come from all different racial, ethical, and religious backgrounds. As a teacher it is our joke to treat every student equally no matter what kind of background they come from. rough students in our classroom may be originally from a different country and may not speak English but we have to develop accommodations to make sure this child can learn and succeed. In our classrooms we will also have students with different learning disabilities. We have to these into consideration when we plan our lesson do sure we make modifications to help ensure the childs compulsions are being met.Through out the text edition Comprehensive classroom Management Creating Communities of nutrition and Solving Problems, the authors Vern and Louise Jones gathered reasearch and wro te about diversity in the classroom in several chapters. Here is the important information that I found that will assist in having a well managed classroom with a divers(a) student body.When teachers begin a new school year it is important to get to know who the students are. It is important to get an understanding of their background so a teacher can apply this knowledge to their classroom management. The casebook has a quote from Shevalier and McKenzies (2012) review on culturally responsive doctrine that shares where classroom management arose from. It quotes classroom management arose from a family-like community specify by a shared vocabulary, with all responsible to one another to do the right thing.By communicating with the students and their families the teacher learns what is and is not authoritative or taught at home. accomplishment what is accepted in their culture will guide the teacher in how to apply the lesson to the class. Students that move to the United State s may have different interpretations of gestures and words and it is important for teachers to know this so no students are offended or class is disrupted.Another important sphere of a students background is where they belong. Being aware of students home life and if they conk in poverty areas helps the teachers learn to establish a postitive learning environment. The textbook discusses the article A Framework for Culturally Responsive Teaching pen by Raymond Wlodkowski and Margery Ginsberg. (1995) It discusses in poverty areas a learning environment has to punctuate intrinsic demand. The atmosphere that is created has students and teachers respecting each other, making what is taught relavent to the students, having creative learning experiences that include students input, and making students feel that they are effective in learning something they value.Where students live and what cultures they come from are not the only things that cover classroom diversity. Under the Indi viduals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) teachers are to include students with Kathleen Slamka 3 both physical and learning disablities in the general education classroom. Working with in their IEP team it is important for teachers to make these students feel they are competent to participate in class. They need to be treated the same as the other students and to be an effective teacher you need to consider this and work it into your lesson plans.When becoming a teacher it is important for teachers not to just learn how to teach but understand who they are teaching. Classroom diversity is an important part of good classroom mangement. When a teacher goes that extra mile to become mixed in students life then the students will succeed under their careMotivation and High ExpectationsCauses of slump Motivation in StudentsPressure Some students respond negatively to pressure and avoid participation because of fear of failure. They appear not to care but are using this to cover t heir anxiety. blue Classroom Expectations Teachers having poor attitudes and does not focus on students needs and common respect.Lack Of Home Support- Parents are less invlove in the students learning and deliver a lack of importance toward education.Low income parents- Parents are working more and not home enough to meet childs personal and emotional needs. Parents may not make much therefore students are left with particular food and clothes that are worn out or outgrown.Low Self Esteem Students- have low self image and see themselves not capable and tasks to hard for them. They avoid doing tasks for fear.According to our textbook (2016), one of the main components of creating high demand and expectations is creating a safe, calm, and healthy classroom environment. If students feel like they are safe and cared for, they more than likely will do their best. Students can come from all different backgrounds and home lives and it is our job as teachers to take that worry away fro m them and make them feel safe and loved at school. Another component is making students feel like they can accomplish anything they set their minds to.Some things that organize our thinking about motivation are Intrinsic Value, which is a students interest or enjoyment with move in a task Attainment Value, which is when a student feels like they can achieve or accomplish a task and utility program Value, which is when the students feel like what they are learning and doing will benefit their locomote one day.Teachers feel that student dont see the value in learning the curriculums taught in the classroom. As teachers, we have to create a learning environment that establishes inclusion, develops attitude, enhances meaning, and engenders competence. We have to create a classroom environment where everyone feels respected and cute including the teachers and students we have to try our best to create a favorable appetency for learning through their personal relevance, we have to c reate learning that is challenging, and we need to make students feel like they are learning about something they value.Finally, students that are low motivators need help understanding the value of their learning goals, understand the learning process, be involved in the process, have goals, experience success, self-evaluate, arrest appropriate rewards, and experience a safe and well-organized learning environment.Academic Learning GoalsTeachers responsibility regarding safetyCreating a safe classroom environment is one of the key factors for a successful classroom, and it is very important for the students. A lot of classroom problems can be prevented by creating a safe and authoritative environment for the students. Research has indicated that when students perceive their relationships with their teachers and peers to be positive and supportive their motivation and positive behavior increases dramatically. Students academics will be enhanced when the teacher takes time to respo nd to the students psychological and personal needs. Creating a safe environment for students will benefit their social, mental, physical, and spiritual needs. A student will always remember a teacher who took the time to get to know them and cared about them. atomic number 13 Educator Code of EthicsImportant Laws for TeachersBullying LawsAlabama has anti-deterrence laws and policies. The Student Harassment streak Act was signed by Bob Riley on May 29, 2009. Cyberbullying is included in these laws. According to Alabamas Student Harassment Prevention Act says that research confirms that victims of school bullying and harassment suffer pestiferous psychological problems that could lead to suicide, behavioral problems, and lower levels of academic achievement. As teachers it is our job to make sure our students are not being bullied, and if we see bullying to take certain protocols to resolve the bullying.No student shall engage in or be sujected to harassment, violence, threats of v iolence, or intimidation by any other student that is based on any of the specific characteristicsthat have been place by the board in this policy. Students who violate this policy will be suject to disciplinary sanctions.IDEAIDEA is the Individuals with Disablities Education Act. This act ensures services for students with disabilities. They provide finicky education and intervention to students who need the help.IDEA is a law ensuring services to children with disabilities throughout the nation. IDEA governs how states and public agencies provide early intervention, special education and related services to more than 6.5 million eligible infants, toddlers, children and young with disabilitiesDue ProcessAccording to myaea Students first Act was adopted by the legislature during the 2011 regular session. This act imposed a new upgrade system and education support professionals in Alabama.Teachers have the right to hear and contest charges that are placed against the before they l ose their jobs. Teachers have a right to a hearing and have the right to appeal the hearings findings. case of Special Needs StudentsAccording to IDEA, students with disabilities can be suspended or expelled for violating the schools cypher of conduct. There are some procedures though, the length of time and type of action, the nature of the conduct that led to the action, and whether it is connected to the students disability. These situations are handled case by case.DressTeachers are to dress professionally and by their schools dress code policy. Every school district is different in what they have their teachers to wear.FERPAFERPA is the Family Education Rights and Privacy Act. It is to ensure that parents have access to their childrens educational records and to protect the concealment rights of parents and children by limiting access to these records without parental consent.Works Cited PageDenton,Paula, Kriete, Roxann. A Conflict Resolution Protocol for ElementaryClassrooms . Creducation.Retrieved fromhttp//web.archive.org/web/20081031103405/http//www.responsiveclassroom.org/pdf_files/feature_10.pdfJones, Vernon, Jones, Louise. Comprehensive Classroom Management Eleventh Editionp. 4, 49-50, 172-174, 298-299.Alex.State.al.usstop bullyingmodeHttp//alex.state.al.us/leadership/Alabama_Educator_Code of_Ethics.pdfhttp//www.Idea.ed.govhttp//www.myaea.orgHttp//www.brighthubededucation.com/teaching-methods-tips/19619-advantages-of-group-work-in-the-class/Due Process Laws variegate for Teachers by State. (2014, September 23). Retrieved November 24, 2015,from http//www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2014/09/24/05tenure.h34.html

4G Technology An Analysis

4G Technology An Analysis4G refers to the Fourth coevals of jail cellular piano tuner standards in tele talks that will succeed it predecessors 3G 2G. It is a fast broadband tuner lucre that offered comprehensive secure al unitary IP ground run. According to the ITU, demands for 4G standards were specified by IMT-Advanced (International winding Telecommunication-Advanced). The entropy place of 4G answer for lavishly mobility communication was set to 100 Mbps and wiped step up(p) mobility communication was set to 1 Gbps.It foc subprograms on cellular dodging with extremely steep selective information gait the concept of seamless technology in every wireless systems. Carriers that be victimization OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing) as an alternative to TDMA and CDMA be promoting their services as 4G even though their data judge atomic number 18 non tall according to the ITU.4G outdoor substance ab drug exploiters that have interlock c hafe by dint of with(predicate) cell phones or smart phones were promised to have a targeted data swiftness of rough 100 Mbps by the IMT-Advanced and the data speed for indoor workrs much(prenominal) as local argona entanglement (Local Area Nedeucerk) was suppose to be around 1Gbps. This face of higher(prenominal) speed for both fixed and vigorous meshing users is genuinely amazing. 4G proposes scalable channel bandwidth flexibility of up to 40 MHz. The profit resources are derriere-doally utilized shared to sustain to a greater extent simultaneous users all all oer each call. 4G also has the potentiality to propose high QoS (Quality of Service) for multimedia nominate and offer smooth handover heterogeneous webs. It must also have the ability to offer wireless LAN roaming interact with systems apply for video broadcasting. count 5 Seamless Connection of nets in 4G 5.The 4G computer computer computer architecture comprises of 3 pivotal worlds of connectivi ty namelyPAN (Personal Area Ne cardinalrk)WAN (Wide Area Networkcellular ConnectivityEach device will have the ability to interact with the Internet groundingd information that is modified over the profit utilize by the device at that time. This structure abide support a encompassing range of 4G supple devices that sustain global roaming.In 4G communicates users that join the network have the ability to chalk up mobile routers to the nucleotide. Changing user patterns arsehole be accommodated by dynamically shifting network content coverage. Creating superfluous routes as the concentration of people is higher in one area compared to the other enables additional memory get at to the capacity of the network. Users git easily obviate back up routes by hoping to the less congested routes. This allows the network to automatically correspondence the capacity by change magnitude the network utilization. The service for all the users ameliorate with the append in numbe r of users.Need for 4GOne of the questions that come to medicational theme when thinking about future 4G systems is there need. The world-class application to be mobilized was vocalism telephony, few years ago. The short message service (SMS) was the first application to be introduced as a mass-market application. The hardware complexity was not an issue at the given time along with the advantage of comminuted bandwidth requirements. The SMS was just the commencement of dissimilar data services like mobile email, web browsing etc. The key birth in to the highest degree of them was the parcel of land establish wireless networks carrying IP data in one hand and mesomorphic lowests that could cope with these applications on the other. Although the network capacity is ease not an issue due to less number of users, there are number of reasons for summationd bandwidth requirements in the future. First, the number of wireless users increases exponentially resulting into an inc rease in bandwidth requirement. Second, the popularity of video and music d protestloads has increased immensely within few years. The information content in a video or music is more than the corresponding text but so is the capacity requirement. extend but not the least, mobile social networks have taken the rate of flow internet usage to a much higher level. Picture see sites, web blogs and also video sharing sites have reshaped the internet.The need for 4G arises from inadequate performances by 3G to meet the future needs several incompatible standards. The requirement for service portability, universal mobility the need for hybrid networks including both WLAN cellular network design led to the invention of 4G. New modulation methods that offered higher bandwidth with the help of an all IP based network with converged data verbalise capability were possible only by 4G. The chief characteristic essential by 4G was to offer accommodation for the QoS services that were se t as requirements by the ITU.4G technology guarantees secure, comprehensive invulnerable IP based mobile service solutions for wireless modems, laptops, smartphones other mobile devices. finishs such(prenominal) as Multimedia pass on Service (MMS), mobile TV, wireless broadband find, video chat, and Digital mental picture Broadcasting (DVB) are being urbanized to use a 4G network. rising(prenominal) IP based services intromit enhanced gaming, high fibre multimedia streaming, IP telephony really fast broadband Internet can be finded. This groundbreaking technology will have some(prenominal) more facilities getable to users all around the world. Imagine having the ability to access information and services anytime, anywhere with a seamless connection as headspring as receiving large quantity of information, pictures, data video are the key aspects of 4G technology.The future 4G networks would consists of a set of numerous networks having IP based services as their pa rk protocol such that the users are in cook can choose each application and environment. The chief feat would be integrating 4G technology with the breathing cellular technologies with the help of advance technologies. The main features of 4G services that interest the users specifically are high dynamic integration application adaptability. This means services are delivered available to the users as per their preference users job, radio environment air interfaces are all support by 4G.Over the years researchers have been working on shipway of fulfilling the above needs. Ethernet, radio receiver LAN and TD-CDMA, were all supported by the positive network overall. The mobile technology of 4G should be focvictimization on the data-rate increase, new air-interface. The so-called core of the technology, OWA platform should also be embedded with high-velocity wireless systems and wireless mobile system.It should also,Reuse many several(predicate) access technologies as poss ible thereby implementing various functions using the IP-based protocols and technologies.Provide real time services with high enough quality like the current cellular networks.Accessibility to services that should not be affected by the handover interruption.Mobile systems should have interfaces from various technologies simultaneously specially to TDCDMA (UMTS-TDD), wireless LANs (802.11b), and fixed networks (Ethernet).Be capable of accessing to routers and provide an interface between a wired network domain and wireless. A oneness access router directly mapped to a single(a) cell controls an IP subnet.Provide a network management waiter for mobility management, charging, Quality of Service, security and paging issues in a fixed network.Features of 4GFeatures of 4G Wireless SystemsUser Personalization and Friendliness The combination of personalization and friendliness is a key feature in 4G. The well-designed transparency allows man and the machine to interact naturally and is well appreciated. The operator can send the data to the user depending on his/her preference or the data can even be filtered at the user end based on his/her requirement. In order to address a mass market and gain a positive impact on peoples lifestyle it should be kept in mind that every user wants to feel unique and important. Thus personalization enables the user to con work out his device and apportion the services according to his preferences. The combination hence confers the right value to the users expense. heterogeneousness 4G should have a definite advantage in the users day-to-day life. This is obtained by combining the network and terminology heterogeneity, both of which contribute equally to the competency of usage. With network heterogeneity, omni-directional connection and common service can be obtained thereby assuring certain level of quality of service. Heterogeneity enables a user to access and perform multiple things simultaneously for example, if a user wa nts to defile tickets to a museum and listen to music, he can do that. edgeinals in 4G whitethorn have to some common services out of their capabilities due to which adapt of the content might become necessary.Since it is based on IP wireless connectivity, the optimization of internet is maximized. The dress circle switching technology is replaced by packet switching. The specificity of an IP, thus increase the speed along with the reliability of transfer of data. The bandwidth is around 100Mhz and speed of data transmission up to 1 Gbps. yield It supports multimedia, sound, video, wireless internet and other broadband services.Cost Effective Transmission greet of various multimedia services are very low. High capacity, high speed and low cost per bit. Cost of leased spectrum figures in greatly in reaching profitability. For example, the initial resistance from the investment society is a hindrance for WiMAX. This in turn pushes the operators to create new ways of increasing c apital.Global mobility, service portability and scalable mobile networks.Seamless switching or usually referred as handover is gaining popularity. Availability of inter- and intra- technology handovers promises minimum or no interruption thereby assuring Quality of Service (QoS). This is achieved with the help of invariable transparent maintenance of services and inclusion of WiFi to OFDMA.Better programming and call admission control techniques are available.Ad hoc networks and multi-hop networks the independency from routers and access points is an added advantage. The dynamic activation of sender and receiver nodes is similar to a real-time system that is definitely a plus point of 4G. Also the network topology comes into play where every node is contributing to the data transmission.Mobility of users crosswise multiple terminals and terminals across multiple technologies.Confidentiality of both user traffic and the network control information. 4G uses the IPV6 address scheme resulting in every cell having its own IP address. Interlayer security is provided in which only one layer is tack together to do encryption on data.Predecessors of 4GLTE Long Term EvolutionLTE (Long Term Evolution) is yet another technology under the brand of 4G technology. LTE is capable of freehand a full support to the spectrum bands. Upgrading the current 3G networks to WiMAX is difficult in affinity to LTE. The pre 4G technology is known as 3GPP Long Term Evolution. If a 20 MHz channel is used LTE has a capacity of up to 50 Mbps in the uplink 100 Mbps in the downlink.WiMAX- Worldwide interoperability for Microwave AccessWiMAX or Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access, is a faster Wi-Filisted under 4G. Mobile operators using the latest spectrum bands benefits mostfrom the WiMAX. If a 20 MHz channel is used WiMAX would offer data ratesup to 56 Mbps in uplink 128 Mbps downlink.UMB extremist Mobile BroadbandUMB (Ultra Mobile Broadband) is based on TCP/IP networki ng technologiescascaded over next generation radio system with data rates up to 280 Mbps.The system was intended to be more proficient postful of supplying moreservices than the technologies it was suppose to replace. UMB was thename within 3GPP2 calibration group to improve the mobile standardsfor next generation applications requirements. Qualcomm is UMBs lead garter ended the education of this technology support LTE instead. Itintended to achieve data rates over 275 Mbps downstream over 75 Mbpsupstream.Flash OFDMAt an initial stage Flash-OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) was supposed to be inter affiliated into a 4G standard.4G Architecture1G wireless telecommunications led to the invention of the first kind-hearted of wireless cellular architecture that is still being offered by most cellular network providers. 2G could support more users in a cell than 1G by using digital technology. This technology gave access to many more callers by making use of the aforementioned(prenominal) multiplexed channel. It was primarily used for voice communication also included some very limited low rate data features such as SMS (Short Messaging Service). 2.5G gave access to the carriers to increase the data rates with just software upgrades with just making the users debase new handsets. 3G promised its users to offer greater bandwidth higher data rates that grants allowance to send as well as receive more information. all 3 generations still have the Cellular Architecture or confidential information Topology where users within that cell can access a common central BTS (Base Transceivers Stations). The major advantage is that with this architecture carriers are able to build up nationwide networks, which most of the major carriers have already done. The major disadvantages of these networks as we progress are that as the data rate increases the output power increases so the size of the cell needs to be decreased in order to accommodate highe r data rates. We would observe smaller cells as the consumers got scared with the increase in the output power. Some of the other disadvantages include no load balancing, singular failure point and spectral inefficiencies.The two very important characteristics of 4G technologies areEnd-to-End Internet ProtocolPeer-to-Peer NetworkingAn all IP network would allow the users to use the same data applications that they use in wired networks. In peer-to-peer networking each device acts as a transceiver and a router for all the other devices in the network. This architecture eliminates the failure of single node.4G is referred to as an ad hoc wireless networking technology, a combination of above characteristics. 4G plays a significant role by allowing users that are joining the network, the approach to add mobile routers to the existing infrastructure.The usage patterns for consumers dynamically shifts the coverage network capacity to be accommodate the changes as the users carry most of the networks with them. The users congregate direct to high demands of usage that also enables access to the network capacity as they create additional routes for each other. They tend to automatically skip from congested routes to lesser-congested routes. This authorizes the network to automatically balance capacity confidential information to an increase in network utilization. The user device that operate as router are essentially a part of the infrastructure. So instead of carriers reducing the cost of devices they actually minimized and deployed the network of the carrier.4G Mobile Network ArchitectureEach user interprets 4G mobile communications differently. For some its purely provides higher data rates to radio interfaces but for other it is internetworking of wireless LAN and cellular technologies. In order to accommodate traffic demand foreseen in an economically executable way , 4G mobile networks must accomplish manifold increase in capacity in comparison to its fo rerunner. Mobile networks are planned for circuit switched voice until now. Fourth Generation wireless architecture was planned as heterogeneous infrastructure consisting of distinctive access systems in a corresponding manner. The user supporting personal agents enjoys unrestricted and ubiquitous connectivity to various applications over the available network. The figure below illustrates potential 4G mobile network architecture including cellular, satellite radio, ad-hoc and hot spot components.A BSC (Base Station Controller) accumulates calls from various base stations, enables handoffs, allot radio channels between BS (Base Station) and hands over calls to a more central mobile switching center. The emerging data networks overlie the existing voice architecture. With the increase in the data traffic this architecture has turned out to be cumbersome difficult to be managed with several network entities.The architecture contains common core Network connected to different wireless and wired networks. It is then connected to PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network)/ISDN (Integrated serve Digital Network) via GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node). GGSN is the chief component of the GPRS (General Packet radio set Service) network. The GGSN is accountable for internetworking between packet switched networks and GPRS network such as Internet.This architecture is associated to 2G via SGSN(Serving GPRA Support Node) from BSC. SGSN is accountable for scattering of data packets to and from mobile stations within its bodily service area. Wireless communication is facilitated between UE (User Equipment) and the network by a piece of equipment known as BTS (Base Transreceiver Station).The connection to 3G is through SGSN towards Node B via RNC (Radio Network Controllers). In 2G networks, Node B is equivalent to BTS. RNC replaces BSC and connects to various networks such as Ad-hoc mobile networks and WLAN access networks. Signaling protocols like imbibe (Session Initiati on Protocol) are extensively used for setting and tearing multimedia communication sessions like video and voice calls above the Internet.The future of mobile communication networks will face challenges in incorporating and integrating various wireless technologies and mobile architectures to achieve flawless wireless infrastructure. Networking technology, has accepted that wireless or wired networks can interface with the core over the IP protocol.IPv6 4G Network ArchitectureThe 4G architecture that supports flawless mobility between distinctive access technologies has an IPv6 based network architecture. Handovers between inter-technology need to be supported else mobility issues will arise. IP network architecture eliminates the voice-centric structure from the network. Instead of packet data overlaying on voice network separate, rather simple data architecture can be implemented which eliminates multiple elements from the network. BSC functions are equally distributed among media gateway router and BS over WAN. These include Radio Bearer control, dynamic al mendings and radio resource management that are handled by base stations whereas gateway router handles distribution of paging messages and security.Ethernet- 802.3 is used for grant wired access and Ethernet -802.11 is used for LAN access. The radio interface W-CDMA of UMTS is used extensively for cellular access. This arises the need for mobility to be implemented in the network layer as it cant be handled by the lower layers. IPv6 mechanism is used for internetworking eliminating the need to use natural procedure for handover over any technology. This clarifies that no infixed procedures are prolong in W-CDMA cells but the same IP protocol facilitates the movement among the cells.The figure above illustrates a few handover potential in such a network to accommodate a moving user. The users can handover among any of theses technologies without ripping the network connection as well as supporting voi ce connections. The users have the opportunity to wander between administrative domains while having the capability to use their services across domains. There should be appropriate agreements among the existing domains. The service providers have the capability to track the usage of their consumers both on and off their network like while roaming.The entire network inclusive of all management functions and applications was being employed with the IPv6 protocol over the Linux environment. AAAC and QoS subsystems were amenable for providing service to each user according to the SLA (Service Level Agreement). The software for these was extended resorting to a combination of existing implementations and newly included modules.The 4 administrative domains are depicted in the figure with various access technologies. An AAAC (Authentication, Authorization, Auditing and Charging) system manages each administrative domain. At least one network access control entity, the QoS Broker, is req uired per domain. Due to the requirements of full service control by the provider, all the handovers are explicitly handled by the management infrastructure through IP-based protocols, even when they are intra- technology, such as between two different Access Points in 802.11, or between two different Radio Network Controllers in WCDMA 7. The network providers are responsible for all the network resources while the user control their local network, applications and terminal.The key characteristics of this network architecture are A User It refers to a company or a person with SLA constricted with a provider for certain set of services. The architecture is concerned about granting access to the users and not specific terminals.MT (Mobile Terminal) It is the terminal that gives access to the users for services. The network architecture can support terminal portability leading to the sharing of the terminal among various users though not at the same time.AR (Access Router) This is t he generic mode of connection to the network that gets the name of RG (Radio Gateway) for fundamentally wireless access.PA (Paging Agent) it is responsible for situating MT when it is idle and there are packets that need to be delivered to it.QoS Broker it is solely responsible for managing one or more ARs. the AAAC system provides information that is used to control user access and access rights.AAAC System It is responsible for SLA including charging and accounting.NMS (Network Management System) It is responsible for overall network control and management. This entity guarantees and manages the accessibility of resources in the main network.This network is proficient of supporting several functions namely Confidentiality both of user traffic and of the network control informationQoS levels guaranties to traffic flowsInter-operator information interchange for multiple-operator scenariosMobility of terminals across multiple technologiesMobility of users across multiple terminal sIMT-Advanced Network ArchitectureThe ITU specified IMT-Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced) specifications for 4G standards. The data rate requirements for 4G service was set at 100 Mbps for high-level mobility communication and 1 Gbps for low-level mobility communication. Pre-4G technologies such as WiMAX and LTE have been in the market for a while. The most current version of these technologies do not accomplish the ITU requirements for 4G service. IMT-Advanced in compliance with the above 2 technologies are still under development and are namely calledLTE-AdvancedWirelessMan-AdvancedThe figure above illustrates the perception of a unified architecture developed by IMT-Advanced network built on IP as the common layer protocol. This interface facilitates services that allow the use of communication networks by the yet to be developed devices. With significant improvements in access speeds popular applications in wire line can be transferred under wireless n etworks in a identical flawless way.Application of 4GVirtual Presence 4G would provide user services to its users at all times irrespective of the fact that the user is on or offsite. The location applications of 4G would maintain a realistic database containing graphical representations and physical characteristics of metropolitan areas. This database can be accessed by users from anywhere by using appropriate wireless equipment, which would give the platform to appear virtual.Tele-medicine 4G would create a platform to proctor the health of patients remotely through video-conferencing with the capability for doctors assistance at anywhere and at anytime.Crisis-Management Applications Natural disasters leading to the breakdown of entire communications infrastructure needs to be restored as quickly as possible. In habitual it may take about a week or so to restore the services with 4G the communication services can be re-established in a couple of hours.Virtual Navigation It wil l provide virtual navigation to users so that they can access virtual database to visualize the internal design of buildings. It requires very high speed of transmission.Tele-Geo Processing Applications It would integrate GPS (Global pose System) and GIS (Geographical Information Systems) providing the users with location querying.Education 4G would provide the opportunity to the people across the globe to continue on-line education in a cost effective manner.Multimedia-Video Services 4G wireless technology is anticipated to deliver high data rates of multimedia services efficiently. There are two different types of video services Streaming video and Bursting. Streaming is used only for real-time services and bursting is used for file download using a buffer and can take advantage of the entire available bandwidth.An appropriate solution for operators who are looking to achieve monetary and adept efficiency in their upgrade path would be combining the 2G-3G with 4G network functio ns. A SGSN+MME node and a GGSN+SGW+PGW node can act as a node for both 2G/3G and a 4G network. There are various solutions that offer flexibility to sparate functions when the traffic grows. 4G evolutions can be eased out by slowly converting the current systems into an integrated 2G/3G/4G system and then lastly to a 4G system. LTE and SAE requirements are ardently followed. This solution, so far provided by lake herring enables one to enjoy the advantages of the existing system along with the augmentation of 4G so that operators can still use the present system if and when desired. It can support 2G/3G nowadays and through a software upgrade these solutions can support 4G functionality as well when LTE networks are deployed. Cisco claims that operators need not perform forklift upgrades when evolving to 4G. existing SGSN,GGSN, or PDG can be upgraded to 4G functional elements MME,SGW,PGW, and ePDG through the solution. The existence of a software upgrade solution to switch from 2G/3G to 4G shows the compatibility of 4G with 2G/3G.